virtue: the essence of being a man

When you think of virtue, the definition in Merriam-Webster's dictionary might come to mind: "a conformity to a standard of right (morality)." However, if you break the word down into its Roman roots, vir and tu, a whole new definition comes to light. In Latin, vir means "man" and tu essentially means "essence of." Together, virtu or virtus, means "the essence of being a man" and held connotations of manliness, courage, valor etc. This definition of virtue has been explored and characterized in the works of writers and artists since Roman times. In the 1500's, Machiavelli and Michelangelo both portrayed their idea of virtue in their works.

Both Machiavelli and Michelangelo agree that part of being a man is to aspire to greatness. For Machiavelli, greatness is achieved when a man has complete control of the state while avoiding the hatred of his people. Machiavelli advises that "the prince should try to avoid anything which makes him hateful or contemptible...(49)." However, he also states that "a prince who wants to keep his state, is often bound to do what is not good (53)." This means that it is more important for a man to appear virtuous rather than actually be virtuous. A prince should "appear all compassion, all honor, all humanity, all integrity, all religion...[but] everyone sees what you seem to be, few know what you really are (49)." In order for a prince to stay in control of his state, and thus keep his greatness, he must appear virtuous to appease the people, but act in whatever manner benefits his rule. Machiavelli did not propose using cruelty or other vices for their own sake, but only when the situation calls for it. Therefore, part of "being a man" is knowing when it is beneficial to be virtuous and when to pursue vice. He must "learn how not to be good, and use that knowledge, or refrain from using it, as necessity requires (42)." Men must use their own intellect and cleverness to achieve greatness. Using force is not enough.

Michelangelo's art also portrays that greatness is part of "the essence of being a man." For instance, in his sculpture of David, the statue's physique is muscular and athletic--a visual representation of greatness. This shows the importance of appearance, just like Machiavelli's prince had to appear great to his people. David could not appear to be anything less than perfect. However, Michelangelo also placed importance on intellect. Instead of depicting a victorious David after his battle with Goliath that would emphasize the use of force, Michelangelo chose to sculpt David before the battle. The sculpture shows David thinking, the slingshot held almost unnoticed in his hand. Michelangelo wanted to attribute David's victory to his own cleverness and not to physical prowess. Like Machiavelli's prince, David had to use his intellect to achieve greatness.

However, Machiavelli and Michelangelo also have differing ideas about virtue. According to Machiavelli, princes should "have no other object, no other thought, no other subject of study, than war, its rule and disciplines...(40)." While this may just apply to princes, it could be implied that part of being a man is to consistently think one step ahead of everyone. There should be no time for peace or relaxation. Machiavelli states that "the prince should never turn his mind from the study of war; in times of peace he should think about it even more than in wartime (41)." Men should always be honing their cunning intellect and regard all other thoughts as secondary, including any connection with religion.

Michelangelo disagrees that there should be no rest or thought to anything but war or staying ahead of your enemies. In his painting "Creation of Adam", he portrays Adam lounging on his side, languidly reaching his finger to touch God's finger. However, Adam's pose mirrors God's, reminding us that man is created in the image of God. This could hint that if God is relaxed, man should be too. This does not mean that man should be lazy. God is still reaching out his finger to give life to Adam--He's performing His greatest work. However, man can find peace and respite amid the hardships of life. He does not have to be constantly calculating his next move. He can take the time to ponder the meaning of life and what God wants for him. According to Michelangelo, part of being a man is taking the time away from worldly actions and pursuing thoughts about God.

It has been interesting to compare and contrast these two views. Both emphasized the importance of the appearance of greatness and of using your own intellect to achieve greatness. However, Machiavelli wanted to push man to the extreme in that area; devoting a good portion of your time to sharpening your intellect is not enough--you have to obsessively dedicate your life to the practice. Michelangelo, on the other hand, proposed that man should also devote time to spiritual thought, suggesting that man balance his life between self and God.

ancient rome and the united states

Ancient Rome and the United States are not so different as one might think. They both have similar social problems. We would be wise to take a hard look at Rome and see what we can do to learn from their mistakes.

Money In Politics

Summary: If someone wants to run for president, or even join politics on a large scale, he/she needs to start saving every dollar. Essentially, it is close to impossible for the "average American Joe" to ever win a presidential election because they simply do not have the funds to do it. Personal wealth is an extremely important factor in the campaign process. Money helps a candidate be seen by wealthy people who fund campaigns and reach the eyes and ears of American voters. Many claim that our constitutional republic run by the people and for the people is actually run by a minority of the rich who can afford to run for office. 

Ancient Rome seemed to have this problem as well. Juvenal observes: "A man's word is believed in exact proportion to the amount of cash which he keeps in his strong-box....What poor man ever gets a legacy, or is appointed assessor to an aedile? Romans without money should have marched out in a body long ago!"  

Clearly, our society and Roman society places too much importance on personal wealth. It seems like in both societies, only the wealthy have any influence in politics and can successfully rise to hold powerful positions. As Juvenal says, "It is no easy matter, anywhere, for a man to rise when poverty stands in the way of his merits."

(Juvenal, Satire 3)

Refugees 

Summary: With the rise of war in the Middle East, the number of refugees has increased--and they are turning to the United States for safety. Obama recently increased the number of Syrian refugees for resettlement in America to 10,000. This has been a controversial issue for awhile. Some believe that the United States cannot take in everyone that is in a worse position. Others argue that because the United States was involved in Iraq, they helped to exacerbate the situation in Syria. Therefore, we owe the Syrians help. Even if we do help, where do we resettle all of them? How do we integrate them successfully into our culture? 

Similarly, the Romans also argued over whether foreigners should be allowed in their domain. Juvenal observes that "the Syrian Orontes has long since poured into the Tiber, bringing with it its lingo and its manners, its flutes and its slanting harp-strings; bring too the timbrels of the breed, and the trulls who are bidden ply their trade at the Circus." Essentially, he claimed that Greek culture is polluting Rome just like many Americans feel like too many refugees from other countries are a threat to American culture. 

Some Americans believe that these refugees might take away jobs that unemployed Americans desperately need. Juvenal embodies this anger in this simple questions: "Is a man to sign his name before me, and recline upon a couch better than mine, who has been wafted to Rome by the wind which brings us our damsons and our figs?"

(Juvenal, Satire 3)

Substance Abuse 

Summary: Drug abuse is a major public health problem in the United States, causing cancer, HIV/AIDS, heart disease and other medical problems. According to the National Institute of Drug Abuse, more than 50,000 people died due to drug overdose. Not only does drug abuse affect the addict, but it affect the lives of people around them. Drug abuse can destroy families, harm unborn babies and raise levels of violence and crime. Solutions for this issue come from both ends of the spectrum: some advocate for prohibition of some drugs while others call for their legalization. 

This problem was much harder to find a parallel in Ancient Rome as references to drugs tend to be primarily medicinal. However there are some partially-hidden references within Juvenal's Satire that suggest that drug use may have been an issue for the Romans too. For instance, in Satire 14 Juvenal jokingly prescribes the opium-based "mixture of Mithridates" (aka mithridatium) as a "prophylactic for fathers of teenage boys" (Escohotado 305). Mithridatium is a drug supposedly created by Mithridates, King of Pontus, that fortified his body against any poison. His drug worked so well, that when he tried to kill himself no poison would work. Juvenal suggests that if fathers want to live in their old age and not be killed by their pernicious sons, they should start using this drug to prevent themselves from getting poisoned. He states: "You are already in your son's way; you are delaying his prayers; your long and stag-like old age is a torment to the young man. Seek out Archigenes at once; buy some of the mixture of Mithridates; if you wish to pluck one more fig, and gather roses once again, you should have some medicament to be swallowed before dinner by one who is both a father and a king." 

Basically, Juvenal is satirically telling the Romans that when all seems to be lost, using drugs is the answer. This is a similar source of drug use in the United States--people turn to drugs or become addicted to them as an answer to unpleasant life conditions. 

(Juvenal, Satire 14)

Separation of Church and State

Summary: In 1956, "In God We Trust" became the national motto of the United States due to a resolution passed by Congress. However, some argue that this is unconstitutional because it violates the First Amendment. The First Amendment states that there needs to be a clear separation of church and state. Proponents say that if religion and government are entirely separated, it would lead to a moral crisis. Societies, in a large part, depend on churches to help establish morals and a code of conduct. 

While Juvenal does not directly talk about the relationship between religion and government, he does pointedly show that Rome's moral structure is decaying. Juvenal warns against this decay, saying, "No deed that sets an example of evil brings joy to the doer of it. The first punishment is this: that no guilty man is acquitted at the bar of his own conscience, though he have won his cause by a juggling urn, and the corrupt favor of the judge."  In other parts of his Satire, Juvenal describes how the Romans use money to manipulate outcomes in their favor (see Satire 3). 

Juvenal relates that many people think that they do not have to worry about the gods. These people mistakenly say to themselves, "The wrath of the Gods may be great, but it assuredly is slow; if then they charge themselves with punishing all the guilty, when will they get my length? And besides I may perchance find the God placable; he is wont to forgive things like this. Many commit the same crime and fare differently: one man gets a gibbet, another a crown, as the reward of crime."

Essentially, because people have stopped believing in their religion, they believe they can get away with dishonesty. Juvenal sadly declares that in Rome, "there is no room for honest callings." 

(Juvenal, Satire 13, Satire 3)

Pornography

Summary: Pornography has become an increasingly dangerous issue in American society. Frequency of porn use leads to depression, anxiety, stress and other mental health issues. It destroys users and families--much like substance abuse. It increases behavioral aggression and, in some instances, has led to violent assaults. Pornography is also an element that adds to the problem of sex trafficking. America is becoming habituated to a rising sexual culture.

A heavy focus on pornography is not something new to American culture however. Rome also had this problem interwoven into their culture. Instead of obscenity being propagated through technology (which did not exist in ancient Rome), it was spread as live entertainment. Juvenal says, “You may look perhaps for a troop of Spanish maidens to win applause by immodest dance and song, sinking down with quivering thighs to the floor----such sights as brides behold seated beside their husbands, though it were a shame to speak of such things in their presence. . . . The clatter of castanets, words too foul for the strumpet that stands naked in a reeking archway, with all the arts and language of lust, may be left to him who spits wine upon floors of Lacedaemonian marble...”

Just like in modern times, pornography destroyed families in Rome. Juvenal talks about how husbands and wives tried to hide their enjoyment from each other. Keeping secrets is never a good foundation to build a marriage on.

(Juvenal, Satire 11)

Other Resources Used:

Escohotado, Antonio, and G. W. Robinette. The General History of Drugs. Valparasio, Chile: Graffiti Milante, 2010. Web. 8 Mar. 2017.

five social problems

"Life sucks and then you die." 

This seems to be many people's response to life's problems, especially large social issues that seem to have either no solution or as many solutions as there are opinions. Many of these problems can be hard to face, but acknowledging them is the first step to creating a better world. Five of the most challenging social issues facing the United States right now are: 

Money In Politics

If someone wants to run for president, or even join politics on a large scale, he/she needs to start saving every dollar. Essentially, it is close to impossible for the "average American Joe" to ever win a presidential election because they simply do not have the funds to do it. Personal wealth is an extremely important factor in the campaign process. Money helps a candidate be seen by wealthy people who fund campaigns and reach the eyes and ears of American voters. Many claim that our constitutional republic run by the people and for the people is actually run by a minority of the rich who can afford to run for office. 

Refugees 

With the rise of war in the Middle East, the number of refugees has increased--and they are turning to the United States for safety. Obama recently increased the number of Syrian refugees for resettlement in America to 10,000. This has been a controversial issue for awhile. Some believe that the United States cannot take in everyone that is in a worse position. Others argue that because the United States was involved in Iraq, they helped to exacerbate the situation in Syria. Therefore, we owe the Syrians help. Even if we do help, where do we resettle all of them? How do we integrate them successfully into our culture? 

Substance Abuse 

Drug abuse is a major public health problem in the United States, causing cancer, HIV/AIDS, heart disease and other medical problems. According to the National Institute of Drug Abuse, more than 50,000 people died due to drug overdose. Not only does drug abuse affect the addict, but it affect the lives of people around them. Drug abuse can destroy families, harm unborn babies and raise levels of violence and crime. Solutions for this issue come from both ends of the spectrum: some advocate for prohibition of some drugs while others call for their legalization. 

Separation of Church and State

In 1956, "In God We Trust" became the national motto of the United States due to a resolution passed by Congress. However, some argue that this is unconstitutional because it violates the First Amendment. The First Amendment states that there needs to be a clear separation of church and state. Proponents say that if religion and government are entirely separated, it would lead to a moral crisis. Societies, in a large part, depend on churches to help establish morals and a code of conduct. 

Pornography

Pornography has become an increasingly dangerous issue in American society. Frequency of porn use leads to depression, anxiety, stress and other mental health issues. It destroys users and families--much like substance abuse. It increases behavioral aggression and, in some instances, has led to violent assaults. Pornography is also an element that adds to the problem of sex trafficking. America is becoming habituated to a rising sexual culture.

the three plagues

“These are the times that try men’s souls” (Paine). Thomas Paine used these words to describe the American Revolution, but they also adeptly point out that trials and challenges have a way of revealing the true ideals of an individual. Because societies are just groups of individuals, trials and challenges also have a way of revealing the ideals of a society. While we may not know much about ancient Greek society, we do understand some of their morals from the way they responded to tragedy in the accounts of ancient Greek historians. Homer, Sophocles and Thucydides all wrote accounts of Greeks responding to plagues, showing the societal values of their day.

In Homer’s Iliad, the Greek encampment around Troy were struck with a deathly plague for nine days. According to Homer’s account, "Agememnon had dishonored Chryses, Apollo's priest, so the god struck the Greek camp with plague, and the soldiers were dying of it" (Homer 1). Agamemnon had taken Chryses’ daughter, Chryseis, as a war prize after a battle. Chryses, as any loving father would do, plead with Agememnon to trade Chryseis for a large ransom. Agamemnon refused and ordered Chryses out of his sight—a grave error on the warrior king’s part. Chryses, upset and offended, prayed to Apollo, asking, "Let the [Greeks] pay for my tears with your arrows!" (Homer 2).

Unfortunately for the Greeks, Apollo heard the prayer of Chryses and afflicted the Greek army with a sickness that led to the death of many of their men. Finally, on the tenth day, Achilles, one of the great Greek warriors, called an assembly. This should have been done by Agamemnon as basileus or “king”; he was responsible for the physical welfare of his people. Yet he did nothing as his men died from sickness. The plague must have been quite dire to prompt Achilles to overstep his bounds into the basileus role to call an assembly. He identified the need for catharsis or "religious purification." He suggested that they "consult some prophet or priest or a dream interpreter...who could tell [them] why Apollo [was] so angry" (Homer 3). Seers, prophets and soothsayers were the mouthpieces of the gods. They were often consulted to know the minds and wills of the immortals on Mount Olympus.

This reaction to misfortune displayed the priorities of Greek society. The Greek soldiers gathered under an authority figure to find a solution to the plague. They also immediately turned to a soothsayer who could tell them the will of the gods and what purification rituals they need to do to right whatever wrong had been committed. This shows that the Greeks were very unified around religious principles and were aware of how their actions affected others. They also had a clear understanding of right and wrong and the process of clearing their names.

Similar to the Illiad, Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex, is another play that begins with a plague and portrays the Greeks’ process of dealing with a trial. Instead of a plague that just killed people, this plague directly targeted the reproduction abilities of the city’s people, animals and crops. One citizen describes that there was “death in the fruitful buds from the earth and in the pasturing herds, and even in the childless births of women” (Sophocles 12). Life was becoming difficult to sustain.

The city was becoming desperate and they gathered in an assembly-like body to supplicate their basileus, Oedipus, for help. He assured them that he was already attempting to solve the mysterious cause of the plague and had sent Creon, his brother-in-law, to the oracle at Delphi to ask the gods for answers. This parallels what the Greek warriors did in the Iliad—sought guidance from the basileus who then turned to a soothsayer for direction. Upon Creon’s return, the Greeks discovered that the cause of the plague was related to their previous king’s murder. They had not performed the necessary religious purifications to rid themselves of the stain the murder left on their city because they were desperately seeking a way to rid themselves of a Sphinx that was terrorizing the city. Unlike Agamemnon, Oedipus shouldered the task of purifying the city. He proclaimed that he would “dispel the stain” (Sophocles 16). In their case, the proper purification ritual was to find the murderer and kill him; the gods would then feel that the universe was again balanced in an “eye-for-an-eye and tooth-for-a-tooth” type of way. Oedipus turned once again to a soothsayer for assistance in uncovering the murderer’s identity.

The society in Oedipus Rex responded in a similar manner to their plague as the Greek warriors in the Iliad did to their plague. They were also unified around religious principles and conscientious of righting any wrongs that would displease the gods. Before deciding on a course of action, they made sure to confirm with a seer or soothsayer that the gods would approve of their plan.

Thucydides’ account of an Athenian plague is quite different than that of Homer or Sophocles. He does not suggest a cause of this plague, preferring instead to leave “all speculation as to its origin and its cause…to other writers, whether lay or professional” (Thucydides 275).  His only reference to a possible cause of this plague was that there seemed to be no visible cause—perfectly healthy people were suddenly struck down without warning with a terrible fever that progressively worsened until they died.

In Homer’s and Sophocles’ stories, the people immediately turned to their king and the gods to resolve what they believed a wrongdoing on their part. However, in Thucydides’ account, the society acted completely opposite. Thucydides commented that because the plague was killing numerous amounts of people “…all the burial rites before in use were entirely upset, and they buried the bodies as best they could” (Thucydides 277). As people began to disregard religious funeral rites, they also began to become lax in other areas. The gods became of little importance as people realized that the plague was not discriminating between believers and non-believers—both were being sent to their deaths. As religion declined, so did society’s morals. The people decided to “spend quickly and enjoy themselves” while “perseverance in what men called honor was popular with none” (Thucydides 277). Because fear of losing their lives was greater than fear of unresponsive gods, Thucydides’ society determined that they would rather focus on present enjoyment in any way they would like than on living a righteous, moral life. Society no longer cared for religion like they had in Homer’s and Sophocles’ time and unity had no value.

These three accounts of how different Greek societies responded to a plague suggest an important lesson for modern times. Religion unifies people and helps keep their human nature in check. According to Homer and Sophocles, even though not everyone wanted to listen to the soothsayer and understand the will of the gods, the majority of society believed that something wrong had been done and deliverance from the plague was contingent on whether or not they corrected or purified themselves. When a problem arrived, these people united together and turned to their king and the gods. However, once religion declines, then the moral fabric of a society decays. Thucydides’ society threw religious principles out the window and lived their lives full of “lawless extravagance” (Thucydides 277). No one was interested in morality or in right and wrong. From the accounts of Homer, Sophocles and Thucydides, we learn that the true morals of society are revealed when they are faced with a trial.

Bibliography:

Paine, Thomas. "A Quote from The Crisis." Goodreads. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Feb. 2017. 

e p i t h e t s

Mentor of Youth 

I have always loved teaching and sharing my love of learning with others. At the beginning of last year, I was offered the opportunity to mentor youth in the 8th grade as a leadership coach. I mentor groups of 10-15 youth for half an hour, Monday through Thursday. We talk about various leadership principles and skills and how to implement them into our daily lives. I absolutely love watching each youth grow. Mentoring them is one of the most fulfilling parts of my day and, as cliche as it sounds, they help me to be a better person.


Creator of Movement

I'm pretty sure I was born dancing. Ever since I can remember, I wanted to be a ballerina. They were so graceful, elegant and beautiful. I trained for 11 years at a classical ballet school and was able to realize my dream of dancing on pointe in a gorgeous tutu. When I came to BYU, I wanted to explore more varieties of dance. My first semester I enrolled in my very first ballroom class. I was hooked by the end of the first day. Now, I dance on the BYU Ballroom Dance Company and embrace every minute of it. Dance is a way to express myself in a way that words cannot.

(Note: If you ever see someone twirling down the aisle at the grocery store with long black hair, there's a good chance that's me.)

Master Planner

My life would fall apart if I lost my planner. Between dance, a job, an internship, church callings and a full school schedule, my time tends to be stretched thin. Let's not even talk about trying to have a social life or getting a good eight hours of sleep every night. I have become very adept at planning out and sticking to a disciplined schedule each week so that I can accomplish everything asked of me. Because of this, most of my time is usually well-spent (key word being "usually") and I find that I actually do have time to relax and binge watch a season of The Office every now and then with my best friend. 

Viewer of Films

One of my fondest memories of my childhood is family movie nights. We would pop some popcorn and throw out a picnic blanket on the floor of our theater room to catch any spills. My family has watched just about every genre of movie. I've seen old classics like The Ten Commandments and Gone With the Wind to Asian films like Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon to beloved musicals like Oklahoma and The King and I to more recent movies like Tangled and The Bourne Series. Afterwards my family critiques each film and may discuss characters and plot lines, repeat silly lines or reenact scenes for days.